Anatomical terms. Anatomical terms and concepts

In the human body there are about twelve different systems that, closely interacting, ensure the performance of numerous complex functions. This book illustrates and analyzes the systems responsible for body movements and positions, that is, and, which are often considered as a single unit.

The skeletal system consists of bones, ligaments and joints. The adult human skeleton has 206 bones, total weight which is 8-9 kilograms. The skeletal system is a kind of frame that makes all movements possible. are attached to the bones, covering the joints on different sides. If a muscle is attached to bones on opposite sides of a joint, contractions of the muscle cause changes in its position.

The muscular system is characterized by the presence of three types of tissue: cardiac, smooth and skeletal.

Heart muscle forms the walls of the heart, and the smooth one forms the internal organs, such as the stomach and blood vessels. Both of these types of muscles contract involuntarily, under the influence of hormones and autonomic impulses. nervous system. Of the approximately 700 muscles in the female body, about 650 are skeletal. On average, half of a person's weight is muscle, which, in turn, is three-quarters water.

Muscles are attached to bones by tendons. The attachment points are conventionally divided into initial and final. The origin of a muscle is considered to be the proximal point of its attachment (closest to the beginning of the limb or to the midline of the body). It is usually characterized by a tendon that is inactive; it is like a support from which muscle movements are repelled. The end of a muscle is its distal attachment point (the furthest point from the beginning of the limb or from the midline of the body). Usually it is attracted to the starting point.

Anatomical pose

By studying anatomy and analyzing various movements, we start from the standard initial pose of the human body, which is called anatomical. All movements and changes in position are described as if they were made from this starting position.

The anatomical posture is as follows: a person stands upright, face facing forward, legs together, arms hanging loosely at his sides, palms facing forward.

Anatomical terms describing body position and direction of movement

There are standard terms that describe the relative position of different parts of the body in relation to each other. The human body is a complex three-dimensional structure, so knowing the exact anatomical terms of position and direction will help you compare one body part to another and understand how they are positioned in relation to each other. These terms remain the same whether a person is sitting, standing or lying down.

Name	Definition	Usage example
Front	In front, directed forward	The abdominal muscles are located in the front abdominal cavity
	Rear-facing, backward-facing	Responsible for leg extension at the hip joint back group thigh muscles
	Located above other structures, directed towards the head	The shoulder girdle occupies a superior position in relation to the pelvic region
	Located under other structures, directed towards the feet	The pelvic region occupies a lower position in relation to the shoulder girdle
Lateral	Directed away from the midline of the body	The outer part of the knee joint is formed by the lateral condyle of the tibia
Medial	Directed towards the midline of the body	The inner part of the knee joint is formed by the medial condyle of the tibia
Proximal	Closer to the torso or beginning of a limb	The hip joint occupies a proximal position relative to the knee
	The toes are the distal formation of the feet
Surface	Located closer to the surface of the body than other structures	The rectus femoris muscle forms surface layer quadriceps femoris
	The deepest layer of the abdominal wall is formed transverse muscle belly
Pronation	Turn down, inward	When pronating the hand, the palm faces down
Supination	Turn up, out	When the hand is supinated, the palm faces upward

Movements in the joints

How is a woman's body different from a man's?

Skeletal differences

The female skeleton is usually smaller than the male one. On average it is 7 percent shorter and 8 percent narrower. There are also differences in the proportions of individual parts of the skeleton. For example, women have shorter torso and legs. If we consider different somatotypes, then these ratios may change. For example, women of the same height usually have longer legs than men of the same height. This increases the length of the lever and increases the risk of knee damage. In addition, women have a lower center of gravity than men, making it easier for them to maintain balance.

Muscle and connective tissues

Measurements muscle strength show that women are on average 30-50 percent weaker than men. This difference manifests itself mainly in the upper body, which is about 40 percent stronger in men. Women tend to have less muscle mass and higher body fat content. In addition, the larger male skeleton creates an advantage in terms of lever length. At the same time, male muscles are no different in structure from female ones. Typically, a woman can develop the same strength by one muscle mass, like a man. Moreover, as a result of training, representatives of the weaker sex show the same relative increase in muscle strength as representatives of the stronger sex.

In sports such as mountaineering, dance Sport and gymnastics, a lower center of gravity, flexibility, shorter limbs, and strength to weight ratio give women a definite advantage.

Adipose tissue

There are two types of fat in the body. One of them accumulates mainly in organs and muscles, playing an important role in the processes occurring there, and the second is deposited in subcutaneous tissues. This is where excess fat is stored.

The fat content in women's organs and muscles is higher than in men (12 percent versus three percent), as well as under the skin. For a healthy woman between the ages of 20 and 30, 23-27 percent body fat is considered normal. For a man, this norm is 16 percent. After age 45, a healthy woman has 32 percent body fat versus 25 percent for men.

In representatives of the stronger sex, excess fat is deposited mainly on the abdomen, while in representatives of the weaker sex it is distributed on the hips and buttocks, and also, to a lesser extent, in the upper arms, around the navel and knees. The chest area also contains a large amount of fat that surrounds the mammary glands.

Women are more susceptible to changes in body weight, especially with early menopause or sedentary life.

Thus, high body fat is a normal manifestation of female physiology. In consultation with specialists before starting training, you yourself will be able to determine how much fat is excessive for you and create a training program based on realistic goals and expectations.

Terms used[ | ]

Position relative to the center of mass and the longitudinal axis of the body or body outgrowth[ | ]

Abaxial(antonym: adaxial) - located further from the axis.
Adaxial(antonym: abaxial) - located closer to the axis.
Apical (antonym: basal) - located at the top.
Basal(antonym: apical) - located at the base.
Distal(antonym: proximal) - distant.
Lateral(antonym: medial) - lateral, lying further from the median plane.
Medial(antonym: lateral) - middle, located closer to the median plane.
Proximal(antonym: distal) - neighbor.

Position relative to main body parts[ | ]

Aboral(antonym: adoral) - located on the pole of the body opposite the mouth.
Adoral(oral) (antonym: aboral) - located near the mouth.
- relating to the stomach.
Ventral(antonym: dorsal) - abdominal (anterior).
Dorsal(antonym: ventral) - dorsal (back).
Caudal(antonym: cranial) - caudal, located closer to the tail or to the rear end of the body.
Cranial(antonym: caudal) - cephalic, located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.
Rostral- nasal, lit. “located closer to the beak”; located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.

Basic planes and sections[ | ]

Methods of drug administration[ | ]

Directions [ | ]

Animals usually have a head at one end of their body and a tail at the opposite end. The head end in anatomy is called cranial, cranialis (lat. cranium"skull"), and the tail is called caudal, caudalis ( cauda"tail"). On the head itself, they are guided by the animal’s nose, and the direction towards its tip is called rostral, rostralis ( rostrum"beak; nose").

The surface or side of an animal's body that points upward, against gravity, is called dorsal, dorsalis ( dorsum“back”), and the opposite side of the body, which is closest to the ground when the animal is in a natural position, that is, walking, flying or swimming, - ventral, ventralis ( venter"stomach"). For example, the dorsal fin of a dolphin is located dorsally, and the cow's udder is ventral side.

Front, anterior, And rear, posterior, correspond to the concepts dorsal And ventral(however, in the case of four-legged animals capable of vertical rack, terms front And rear incorrect: the concepts should be used dorsal And ventral).

Central- located in the center of the body or anatomical region;
peripheral- external, distant from the center.

When describing the position of organs located at different depths, the following terms are used: deep, profundus, And surface, superficialis.

Concepts outer, externus, And interior, internus, are used to describe the position of structures in relation to various body cavities.

The term visceral, visceralis(viscerus - inside) indicate belonging and close proximity to any organ. A parietal, parietalis(paries - wall), - means related to any wall. For example, visceral the pleura covers the lungs, while parietal pleura covers inner surface chest wall.

Limbs [ | ]

Surface upper limb relative to the palm is denoted by the term palmaris - palmar, and the lower limb relative to the sole - plantaris - plantar.

The edge of the forearm on the side of the radius is called radial, radialis, and from the side of the ulna - elbow, ulnaris. On the lower leg, the edge where the tibia is located is called tibial, tibialis, and the opposite edge, where the fibula lies - fibular, fibularis. Proximal(from Latin proximus - closest) - a term indicating the location of an organ or part of it closer to the center of the body or to its middle (median) plane; opposite of the term distal, for example, in the human hand, the shoulder is the proximal section, and the hand is the distal section. -->

Planes [ | ]

In the anatomy of animals and humans, the concept of the main projection planes is accepted.

Application in human anatomy[ | ]

anatomical planes:
sagittal And parasagittal
frontal
axial

The relationship of the body to the main planes of projection is important in medical imaging systems such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography. In such cases, the body of a person located vertically in anatomical stand, is conventionally placed in a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system. In this case, the plane YX turns out to be located horizontally, the axis X located in the anteroposterior direction, the axis Y goes from left to right or right to left, and the axis Z is directed up and down, that is, along the human body.

Sagittal plane, XZ- separates the right and left halves of the body; a special case of the sagittal plane is median a plane that runs exactly through the middle of the body, dividing it into two symmetrical halves.
Frontal or coronal plane, YZ- also located vertically, perpendicular to the sagittal; it separates the front ( ventral) part of the body from the back ( dorsal) parts.
Horizontal, axial or transverse plane, XY- perpendicular to the first two and parallel to the surface of the earth, it separates the overlying parts of the body from the underlying ones.

These three planes can be drawn through any point of the human body; the number of planes can be arbitrary. In addition, in systematic anatomy, a number of other planes are used to determine the topography of internal organs:

Movements [ | ]

The term bending, flexio, indicate the movement of one of the bony levers around frontal axis, at which the angle between the articulating bones decreases. For example, when a person sits down, when bending in knee joint the angle between the thigh and shin decreases. Movement in the opposite direction, that is, when the limb or torso is straightened and the angle between the bony levers increases, is called extension, extensio.

An exception is the ankle (supratalar) joint, in which extension is accompanied by upward movement of the fingers, and when bending, for example, when a person stands on tiptoes, the fingers move downward. Therefore, foot flexion is also called plantar flexion, and extension of the foot is designated by the term dorsiflexion.

With movements around sagittal axis are casting, adductio, And lead, abductio. Adduction is the movement of the bone towards the median plane of the body or (for fingers) to the axis of the limb; abduction characterizes movement in the opposite direction. For example, when the shoulder is abducted, the arm rises to the side, and the fingers are brought together to close them.

Under rotation, rotation, understand the movement of a body part or bone around its longitudinal axis. For example, head rotation occurs due to rotation cervical region spine Rotation of the limbs is also referred to as pronation, pronatio, or inward rotation, And supination, supinatio, or outward rotation. With pronation, the palm of the freely hanging upper limb turns backward, and with supination, it turns forward. Pronation and supination of the hand are carried out thanks to the proximal and distal radioulnar joints. Lower limb rotates around its axis mainly due to hip joint; pronation orients the toe of the foot inward, and supination orients it outward. If, when moving around all three axes, the end of a limb describes a circle, such movement is called circular, circumductio.

Another type of movement - elevation, elevatio- raising (abduction) of the arm above the horizontal level, which occurs with the participation of the movement of the entire belt of the upper limb (scapula and ]

To remember the direction of movement of the hand during supination and pronation, an analogy with the phrase is usually used “I’m bringing soup, I spilled the soup.”.

The student is asked to extend his hand forward with the palm up (forward with the limb hanging) and imagine that he is holding a plate of soup on his hand - "I'm bringing soup"- supination. Then he turns his hand palm down (backwards with a free-hanging limb) - "soup spilled"- pronation.

Links [ | ]

Anatomical Terms ~4000 classified terms on human anatomy

Anatomical terminology is words and phrases denoting the names of areas and parts of the body, organs and parts of organs, and certain anatomical concepts.

Currently, the International Anatomical Terminology is used (ed. L.L. Kolesnikov, 2003), which distinguishes general and specific anatomical terminology.

General terminology- these are words or phrases denoting general characteristics of organs, parts of the body or the body as a whole.

Private terminology- these are words or phrases that define specific organs and anatomical formations.

General terms, termini generales, are used to indicate the size or location of a body part, anatomical formation or organ in relation to planes and axes. It is understood vertical position human body with palms facing forward.

In anatomy, general terms are used to refer to the sagittal, frontal, and horizontal planes.

In relation to the sagittal plane, the following terms are used:

medianus - median, located in the plane that divides the body, its parts or organ into symmetrical or approximately equal halves;

medialis - medial, located closer to the median plane;

lateralis - lateral, lateral, distant from the median plane (from Latin latus - side);

intermedius - intermediate;

dexter - right;

sinister - left.

In relation to the frontal plane, the following terms are used:

anterior - front;

posterior - rear;

ventralis - ventral, lying closer to the front surface of the body (from Latin venter - belly);

dorsalis - dorsal, lying closer to back surface body (from Latin dorsum - back).

In relation to the horizontal plane, the following terms are used:

superior - upper;

inferior - lower;

cranialis - located closer to the head (lat. cranium - skull), the same as the upper one;

caudalis - located closer to the tail (lat. cauda - tail), the same as the lower one.

Common terms to describe the arrangement of body parts or organs along major axes or lines:

verticalis - vertical;

sagittalis - sagittal;

transversalis - transverse;

longitudinalis - longitudinal (regardless of the position of the body or part of the body);

proximalis - located closer to the beginning of a part of the body or organ, the same as cranial;

distalis - located at a distance from the beginning of a part of the body or organ, the same as caudal;

rostralis - located closer to the head, to the beginning of the body (Latin rostrum - beak);

apicalis - located at the apex;

basalis - basal, located closer to the base;

basilaris - basilar, which is the base, the main part.

General terms used to determine the depth (surface) of an anatomical formation:

centralis - central;

periphericus - peripheral;

superficialis - superficial;

profundus - deep;

palmaris, volaris - palmar;

plantaris - plantar.

General terms used to describe the size of an organ or anatomical formation:

major - big (larger);

magnus - big;

parvus - small;

minus - small (smaller);

intermedius - intermediate;

minimus - smallest, small;

maximus - largest, largest;

longus - long;

brevis - short.

Private terminology. Examples:

vertebra; brachial bone;

collarbone; edge;

shoulder blade; sternum, etc.

Control questions

1. What does anatomy study, its purpose and objectives?

2. What methods are used to study human anatomy?

3. What types of human anatomy exist and how are they determined?

4. Name the main planes and axes used in the study of human anatomy.

5. What is anatomical terminology: general, specific?

BONE SYSTEM (OSTEOLOGY)

Osteology, osteologia is a branch of anatomy that studies the passive part of the musculoskeletal system - bones.

Bone, os, is an organ of solid support (skeleton) of the human body. The bones are characterized by the following organ features:

1) a certain rudiment of development in embryogenesis;

2) the inherent structure of a given bone (anatomy);

3) permanent location (topography) and connection with other bones in the skeleton;

4) relatively constant sources of blood supply, lymphatic drainage pathways and nerve connections;

5) a function specific to a given bone.

Functions of bone

Bones perform mechanical and biological functions in the body.

Mechanical Functions:

1) solid body support;

2) protection of internal organs;

3) motor (levers).

Biological functions:

1) mineral metabolism (calcium, phosphorus, etc.);

2) hematopoietic (red bone marrow).

Bone structure

Bone (Fig. 2) is built from bone tissue. It distinguishes between a compact substance (substantia compacta) (1) - the outer layer and a spongy substance (substantia spongiosa) (2) - the inner layer. The crossbars of the spongy substance are arranged in an orderly manner in accordance with the functional load. In the bones of the cranial vault, the spongy substance is called diploe; it contains a large number of channels that form the walls of diploic veins (venae diploicae). In long bones, the middle part of the bone consists only of a compact substance, and inside is the medullary cavity (cavitas medullaris) (3).

The spongy bone is filled with red bone marrow (medulla ossium rubra). Before puberty, the medullary cavity contains red bone marrow, which is replaced with age by yellow bone marrow (medulla ossium flava).

The bone is covered on the outside with periosteum (4), which is represented by a thin, dense connective tissue plate firmly fused to the bone. Blood supply, lymph drainage and innervation of the bone are carried out through the periosteum. Due to the periosteum in the embryonic period, periosteal ossification occurs, as well as bone growth in thickness and bone regeneration during fractures.

The surfaces of the bones that form the joints are covered with articular (hyaline) cartilage (cartilago articularis) (5).

On the surface of the bone there are nutrient openings (6) (foramina nutricia), and in the thickness of the bone there are nutrient canals (canales nutricii), through which vessels and nerves penetrate into the bone substance.

Classification of bones

Based on their shape, bones are divided into the following types (Fig. 3):

1. Tubular.

2. Spongy.

3. Flat.

4. Airborne.

5. Mixed.

1. Tubular bones:

a) long (1): humerus, radius, femur, tibia and other bones.

b) short (2): bones of the metacarpus, metatarsus, phalanges.

2. Spongy bones (3, 4):

a) long: vertebrae, tarsal bones, clavicle.

b) short: carpal bones.

c) sesamoids.

3. Flat bones include:

a) cranial vault;

b) the girdle of the upper (scapula) (Fig. 3, 6) and lower extremities (pelvic bone).

4. The air-bearing bones surround the nasal cavity and contain cavities (sinuses): the upper jaw, the ethmoid bone, the sphenoid bone, the frontal bone.

5. Mixed bones – their shape cannot be classified into any of the above groups: temporal bone, some facial bones.

The following parts are distinguished on a long tubular bone (Fig. 3. 1):

1. Diaphysis (a) - the middle part of the bone, or body (corpus).

2. Epiphyses (proximal (b) and distal (c), epiphysis (proximalis et distalis)) - proximal and distal ends of the bone.

3. Metaphysis (d) - the zone between the diaphysis and the epiphysis.

4. Epiphyseal line (linea epiphysialis) (f) - the place where the growth zone is located - the epiphyseal cartilage (cartilago epiphysialis). This line is located in the metaphysis.

5. Apophysis (e) - bone growth caused by muscle traction or ligament attachment.

According to their position in the human skeleton, they are distinguished (Fig. 4):

1. axial skeleton:

a) skull (1);

b) spinal column (3);

G) rib cage (4).

2. appendicular skeleton: a) bones of the upper limb (5); b) bones of the lower limb (6).

Bone development

The laying of bones in the human embryo appears at the 6-7th week of embryogenesis.

The initial basis for bone development is embryonic connective tissue - mesenchyme, arising from the cells of the middle germ layer - mesoderm (sclerotome).

Future bones are laid in the form of condensations of mesenchyme cells (membranous) - the membranous stage of bone development ( Stage I). In the second month of intrauterine development, the bulk of the membranous bone anlages is replaced by cartilaginous tissue, and cartilaginous models of future bones appear in place of the mesenchymal anlages - the cartilaginous stage of bone development (stage II).

Rice. 3. Types of bones.

Starting from the 8th week of embryogenesis, bone tissue (perichondral ossification) is formed in place of the cartilage due to the perichondrium - the bone stage of bone development (stage III). Along this path (3 stages) the bones of the base of the skull, axial and accessory skeleton develop.

A minority of the membranous (connective tissue) bone anlages are replaced by bone tissue, bypassing the cartilaginous stage. The integumentary bones of the skull, facial bones, and part of the clavicle develop along this path.

The growth of bones in thickness is carried out due to the periosteum, the osteoblasts of which are layered on the previous ones by superposition (apposition), and form a bone plate (periosteal ossification).

The growth of bones in length is carried out due to the epiphyseal cartilage and stops by the age of 25-27 years of life due to its ossification (ossification).

Anatomical terminology serves to accurately describe the location of body parts, organs and other anatomical formations in space and in relation to each other in the anatomy of humans and other animals with a bilateral type of body symmetry, a number of terms are used. Moreover, human anatomy has a number of terminological features that are described here and in a separate article.

Terms used

Terms describing position relative to the center of mass and longitudinal axis of the body or body outgrowth:

Abaxial(antonym: adaxial) - located further from the axis.
Adaxial(antonym: abaxial) - located closer to the axis.
Apical(antonym: basal) - located at the top.
Basal(antonym: apical) - located at the base.
Distal(antonym: proximal) - distant.
Lateral(antonym: medial) - lateral, lying further from the median plane.
Medial(antonym: lateral) - middle, located closer to the median plane.
Proximal(antonym: distal) - neighbor.

Terms describing position relative to major body parts:

Aboral(antonym: adoral) - located on the pole of the body opposite the mouth.
Adoral(antonym: aboral) - located near the mouth.
Abdominal- abdominal, pertaining to the abdominal region.
Ventral(antonym: dorsal) - abdominal (anterior).
Dorsal(antonym: ventral) - dorsal (back).
Caudal(antonym: cranial) - caudal, located closer to the tail or to the rear end of the body.
Cranial(antonym: caudal) - cephalic, located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.
Rostral- nasal, literally - located closer to the beak. Located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.

Main planes and sections:

Sagittal- an incision running in the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Parasagittal- an incision running parallel to the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Frontal- an incision running along the anterior-posterior axis of the body perpendicular to the sagittal.
Axial- incision running in the transverse plane of the body

Directions

Animals usually have a head at one end of their body and a tail at the opposite end. The head end in anatomy is called cranial, cranialis(cranium - skull), and the caudal one is called caudal, caudalis(cauda - tail). On the head itself, they are guided by the animal’s nose, and the direction towards its tip is called rostral, rostralis(rostrum - beak, nose).

The surface or side of an animal's body that points upward, against gravity, is called dorsal, dorsalis(dordum - back), and the opposite side of the body, which is closest to the ground when the animal is in a natural position, that is, walking, flying or swimming - ventral, ventralis(venter - belly). For example, the dorsal fin of a dolphin is located dorsally, and the cow's udder is ventral side.

For the limbs the following concepts are valid: proximal, proximalis, - for a point less distant from the body, and distal, distalis, - for a remote point. The same terms for internal organs mean the distance from the origin of the organ (for example: “distal segment of the jejunum”).

Right, dexter, And left, sinister, the sides are indicated as they would appear from the point of view of the animal being studied. Term homolateral, less often ipsilateral indicates location on the same side, and contralateral- located on the opposite side. Bilaterally- means location on both sides.

Application in human anatomy

All descriptions in human anatomy are based on the belief that the body is in an anatomical stance position, that is, the person stands upright, arms down, palms facing forward.

The areas located closer to the head are called top; further - lower. Upper, superior, corresponds to the concept cranial, and the lower one, inferior, - concept caudal. Front, anterior, And rear, posterior, correspond to the concepts ventral And dorsal. Moreover, the terms front And rear in relation to four-legged animals are incorrect, the concepts should be used ventral And dorsal.

Designation of directions

Formations lying closer to the median plane - medial, medialis, and those located further - lateral, lateralis. Formations located on the median plane are called median, medianus. For example, the cheek is located more laterally wing of the nose, and the tip of the nose - median structure. If an organ lies between two adjacent formations, it is called intermediate, intermedius.

Formations located closer to the body will be proximal in relation to more distant ones, distal. These concepts are also valid when describing organs. For example, distal the end of the ureter enters the bladder.

Central- located in the center of the body or anatomical region;
peripheral- external, distant from the center.

When describing the position of organs located at different depths, the following terms are used: deep, profundus, And surface, superficialis.

Concepts outer, externus, And interior, internus, are used to describe the position of structures in relation to various body cavities.

The term visceral, visceralis(viscerus - inside) indicate belonging and close proximity to any organ. A parietal, parietalis(paries - wall), - means related to any wall. For example, visceral the pleura covers the lungs, while parietal the pleura covers the inner surface of the chest wall.

Designation of directions on the limbs

The surface of the upper limb relative to the palm is designated by the term palmaris - palmar, and the lower limb relative to the sole - plantaris - plantar.

ENE material

[edit] Terms used

Terms describing position relative to the center of mass and longitudinal axis of the body or body outgrowth:

Abaxial(antonym: adaxial) - located further from the axis.
Adaxial(antonym: abaxial) - located closer to the axis.
Apical(antonym: basal) - located at the top.
Basal(antonym: apical) - located at the base.
Distal(antonym: proximal) - distant.
Lateral(antonym: medial) - lateral.
Medial(antonym: lateral) - middle.
Proximal(antonym: distal) - neighbor.

Terms describing position relative to major body parts:

Aboral(antonym: adoral) - located on the pole of the body opposite the mouth.
Adoral(antonym: aboral) - located near the mouth.
Ventral(antonym: dorsal) - abdominal.
Dorsal(antonym: ventral) - dorsal.
Caudal(antonym: cranial) - caudal, located closer to the tail or to the rear end of the body.
Cranial(antonym: caudal) - cephalic, located closer to the head or to the anterior end of the body.

Main planes and sections:

Sagittal- an incision running in the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Parasagittal- an incision running parallel to the plane of bilateral symmetry of the body.
Frontal- an incision running along the anterior-posterior axis of the body perpendicular to the sagittal.

[edit] Directions

All descriptions in human anatomy are based on the belief that the body is in the anatomical stance position, that is, the person stands upright, arms down, palms facing forward.

[edit] Designation of directions

Central- located in the center of the body or anatomical region;
peripheral- external, distant from the center.

When describing the position of organs located at different depths, the following terms are used: deep, profundus, And surface, superficialis.

Concepts outer, externus, And interior, internus, are used to describe the position of structures in relation to various body cavities.

[edit] Designation of directions on the limbs

The surface of the upper limb relative to the palm is designated by the term palmaris - palmar, and the lower limb relative to the sole - plantaris - plantar.

Edge of the forearm from the side radius called radial, radialis, and from the side of the ulna - elbow, ulnaris. On the shin there is an edge where it is located tibia, called tibial, tibialis, and the opposite edge, where the fibula lies - fibular, fibularis.

[edit] Planes

In the anatomy of animals and humans, the concept of the main projection planes is accepted.

The vertical plane divides the body into left and right parts;
the frontal plane divides the body into dorsal and ventral parts;
the horizontal plane divides the body into cranial and caudal parts.

[edit] Application in human anatomy

The relationship of the body to the main planes of projection is important in medical imaging systems such as computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography. In such cases, the body of a person in anatomical stand, is conventionally placed in a three-dimensional rectangular coordinate system. In this case, the plane YX turns out to be located horizontally, the axis X located in the anteroposterior direction, the axis Y goes from left to right or from right to left, and the axis Z is directed up and down, that is, along the human body.

Sagittal plane, XZ, separates the right and left halves of the body. A special case of the sagittal plane is median plane, it runs exactly in the middle of the body, dividing it into two symmetrical halves.
Frontal plane, or coronal, YZ, also located vertically, perpendicular to the sagittal, it separates the anterior (ventral) part of the body from the posterior (dorsal) part.
Horizontal, (axial, axial), or transverse plane, XY, perpendicular to the first two and parallel to the surface of the earth, it separates the overlying parts of the body from the underlying ones.

[edit] Movements

The term bending, flexio, indicate the movement of one of the bony levers around frontal axis, at which the angle between the articulating bones decreases. For example, when a person sits down, bending the knee joint decreases the angle between the thigh and shin. Movement in the opposite direction, that is, when the limb or torso is straightened and the angle between the bony levers increases, is called extension, extensio.

Under rotation, rotation, understand the movement of a body part or bone around its longitudinal axis. For example, turning the head occurs due to the rotation of the cervical spine. Rotation of the limbs is also referred to as pronation, pronatio, or inward rotation, And supination, supinatio, or outward rotation. With pronation, the palm of the freely hanging upper limb rotates posteriorly, and with supination, it rotates anteriorly. Pronation and supination of the hand are carried out thanks to the proximal and distal radioulnar joints. The lower limb rotates around its axis mainly due to the hip joint; pronation orients the toe of the foot inward, and supination orients it outward. If, when moving around all three axes, the end of a limb describes a circle, such movement is called circular, circumductio.

Anterograde movement along the natural flow of fluids and intestinal contents is called, while movement against the natural flow is called retrograde. Thus, the movement of food from the mouth to the stomach anterograde, and with vomiting - retrograde.

[edit] Mnemonic rule for remembering the terms supination and pronation

To remember the direction of movement of the hand during supination and pronation, an analogy with the phrase is usually used “I’m bringing soup, I spilled the soup.”.

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Anatomical terms. Anatomical terms and concepts

Anatomical pose

Anatomical terms describing body position and direction of movement

Movements in the joints

How is a woman's body different from a man's?

Skeletal differences

Muscle and connective tissues

Adipose tissue

Terms used[ | ]

Position relative to the center of mass and the longitudinal axis of the body or body outgrowth[ | ]

Position relative to main body parts[ | ]

Basic planes and sections[ | ]

Methods of drug administration[ | ]

Directions [ | ]

Limbs [ | ]

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Application in human anatomy[ | ]

Movements [ | ]

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Terms used

Directions

Application in human anatomy

Designation of directions

Designation of directions on the limbs