5.1 Load direction. To develop physical qualities, training loads of different nature and magnitude are used. In this regard, for each load it is possible to determine its predominant direction, i.e. highlight those motor abilities or their

6.2 Predominant focus of the training load. After we have considered the factors influencing the level of development of static strength endurance, you need to find out whether there is such an exercise that will allow you to develop all the missing abilities

6.4.2 Selecting the initial load Let’s assume that at a competition an athlete did 25 pull-ups in 2 minutes. It is clear that with such a result he will not be able to perform pull-ups in training for 2-2.5 minutes over several approaches. Let's try to slow down the execution pace

6.4.3 Target load parameters. After setting the initial load in the form of performing pull-ups at a pace of 1 time per 10 seconds, subject to working to failure for at least 2 minutes, we need to determine the target load parameters. Since the training process

7.10.2 Initial load parameters. Volume of load in a series. It is practically important before starting the training process not to make a mistake in choosing the initial load level for one training series. If the total number of pull-ups in a series is chosen to be approximately equal

Loads that we choose The amount of load in health-improving running consists of two components - volume and intensity. The volume of load is measured by the number of kilometers run per session, per week, per month of training. How long can you increase

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Training load and indicators characterizing it

1. Physical activity as a quantitative and qualitative measure of the exercises (means) used by the cyclist

Load is impact physical exercise on the athlete’s body, causing an active reaction of its functional systems, transferring the body to a higher level of its energy capabilities.

Classification of loads in sports:

They are divided into training, competitive, specific and non-specific;

By size - small, medium, significant or (near limit) and large (or limit);

In focus - to help improve motor abilities (speed, strength, coordination, endurance, flexibility) or their components (for example, alactic or lactate anaerobic capabilities), improving the coordination structure of movements, components mental preparedness, tactical skill;

By coordination complexity - those associated with performing movements of high coordination complexity;

According to mental tension - depending on the requirements for the mental capabilities of the athlete - more intense and less intense.

Loads are also distinguished according to their belonging to one or another structural formation of the training process.

In particular, it is necessary to distinguish between the loads of individual training and competitive exercises or their complexes, loads training sessions, days, total loads of micro and mesocycles, periods and stages of preparation, macrocycles, training year.

The magnitude of training and competitive loads can be characterized from the “external” and “internal” sides.

The “external” side of the load is at its most general view can be represented by indicators of the total (quantitative) amount of work. These include: the total amount of work in hours, the amount of cyclic work (number of sessions, duration in kilometers and hours, number of repetitions, riding speed, pedaling pace, gear size, etc.) For full characteristics The “external” side of the training load is distinguished by particular volumes of load, reflecting planning in the total volume of work performed with increased intensity or contributing to the primary improvement of individual aspects of preparedness. For this purpose, they determine, for example, the percentage of work intensity in its total volume, the ratio of work aimed at developing individual qualities and abilities, means of general and special training, etc. To assess the “external” side of the load of cyclists, indicators of its intensity are widely used. The measure of intensity is energy expenditure per unit time, that is, power. Different intensity of covering distance segments can mobilize one or another energy generation pathways.

A low load is ensured by performing work equal to 20-25% of the volume of work at a high load. The criterion for low load is the coordinated activity of the musculoskeletal system, functional systems of the body and autonomic nervous system, that is, the formation of a stable state of performance.

The average load is characterized by work constituting 40-50% of the volume of work at a heavy load, performed until signs of a violation of the steady state of the body appear.

A significant load is characterized by work in a steady state, in which there is no decrease in performance. The work is 70-75% of the work volume under heavy load. The criterion for significant load is the appearance of persistent signs of compensated fatigue.

Heavy load refers to developmental loads, which are characterized by pronounced functional changes in the athlete’s body and cause a sharp decrease in performance, cause a significant level of fatigue, the inability of the athlete to continue working this mode. Such loads on the integral impact on the body can be expressed in terms of 100 and 80%. The recovery period of the involved functional systems is 48-96 and 24-48 hours, respectively. To create a heavy load, the athlete should be given a volume of work that corresponds to his level of preparedness. The criterion for a heavy load is the athlete’s inability to continue working in a given mode. The amount of training load is a derivative of the intensity and volume of work. Their increase can occur simultaneously up to a certain point. Subsequently, an increase in intensity leads to a decrease in volume and, conversely, an increase in the volume of work entails a forced decrease in its intensity. The volume of training load in a session usually refers to the duration and total amount of work performed during a separate training session.

2. Indicators characterizing the “external” and “internal” sides of the load

Objective indicators for assessing external load are skin color, concentration, facial expressions, quality of task performance, mood, general well-being.

However, the load is most fully characterized from the “internal side”, i.e. according to the body’s reaction to the work performed, according to the degree of mobilization of the functional systems of the cyclist’s body when performing work and are characterized by the magnitude of physiological, biochemical and other changes in the functional state of organs and systems caused by it.

Based on this principle, in practice there are five zones of training loads.

1st zone - aerobic recovery zone. The immediate training effect is associated with an increase in heart rate to 140-145 beats/min. Oxygen consumption reaches 40-70% of MIC. Energy is provided through the oxidation of fats (50% or more), muscle glycogen and blood glucose. Blood lactate does not exceed 2 mmol/l. The work is provided by slow-twitch muscle fibers (SMT). Work in this zone takes from several minutes to several hours. It stimulates recovery processes and improves aerobic abilities (general endurance).

The 2nd zone is aerobically developing. The immediate training effect is associated with an increase in heart rate to 160-175 beats/min. Blood lactate is up to 4 mmol/l, oxygen consumption from MIC is 60-90%. Energy is provided through the oxidation of carbohydrates (muscle glycogen and glucose). The work is provided by slow muscle fibers (SMF) and fast muscle fibers (FMF) of type “a”, capable of oxidizing lactate to a lesser extent; it increases from 2 to 4 mmol/l. The load stimulates the development of special endurance and strength endurance. This area is typical for road racing.

3rd zone - mixed aerobic-anaerobic. The immediate training effect in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate to 180-185 beats/min, blood lactate to 8-10 mmol/l, oxygen consumption 80-100% of MIC. The work is ensured by slow and fast muscle fibers of type “b”, which are not able to oxidize lactate, its content in the muscles and blood increases, which reflexively causes an increase in pulmonary ventilation and the formation of an oxygen debt. This area is typical for team road racing. Competitive activity in this mode can last up to 1.5-2 hours.

The 4th zone is anaerobic-glycolytic. The immediate training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in blood lactate from 10 to 20 mmol/l. Heart rate is at the level of 180-200 beats/min. Oxygen consumption is reduced from 100 to 80% of MIC. Energy is provided by carbohydrates. Work is performed by all three types muscle units. Training activity does not exceed 10-15 minutes. Competitive activity in this zone lasts from 20 s. up to 6--10 min. This zone is typical in individual and team pursuit races. The main method is the integral method intense exercise. The amount of work in different sports ranges from 2 to 7%.

The 5th zone is anaerobic-alactate. The work is short-term, does not exceed 15-20 s. in one repetition. Blood lactate, heart rate and pulmonary ventilation do not have time to reach high levels. Oxygen consumption drops significantly. Energy is provided anaerobically through the use of ATP and CP, after 10 s. Glycolysis begins to join the energy supply, and lactate accumulates in the muscles. Work is provided by all types of muscle units. The total training activity does not exceed 120-150 s. for one training session. It stimulates the development of speed, speed-strength, and maximum strength abilities. This zone is typical for training sprinters. The amount of work in different sports is from 1 to 5%.

External and internal characteristics of the load are closely interrelated: an increase in the volume and intensity of training work leads to increased shifts in the functional state of various systems and organs, to the emergence and deepening of fatigue processes, and a slowdown in recovery processes. It is quite difficult to assess the total volume and intensity of the load in the annual cycle, in a training session and in a training exercise as a whole. But still, these parameters are measurable, and they can be planned and assessed.

The training process also includes rational rest, during which recovery from stress occurs and the effect of stress is optimized. The duration of rest periods between distance segments is considered to be an integral part of the training load, which largely determines its direction. The duration of rest periods is set taking into account the speed of recovery after the work performed and the tasks set by the trainer in the lesson.

Within one lesson, three types of intervals should be distinguished:

Full (ordinary) intervals, guaranteeing by the time of the next repetition practically the same restoration of performance that was before its previous execution.

Stressful (incomplete) intervals, during which the next load falls into a state of some under-recovery of performance.

- “Minimax” interval is the shortest rest interval between exercises, after which increased performance (supercompensation) is observed, which occurs under certain conditions.

During passive rest, the athlete does not perform any work,

when active, fills pauses with additional activity. Rationally organized rest ensures restoration of performance after training loads and serves as one of the means of optimizing the effect of loads and long-term adaptation of the body to training loads. In track classes, passive rest is predominantly used, and in training process It is rarely used by road racers. As active rest It is advisable to use cycling or other low-intensity work.

In order to correctly construct the training process, it is necessary to know what effect training and competitive loads, varying in magnitude and direction, have on the athlete’s body, what the dynamics and duration of the recovery processes after them are.

Considering the fact that, according to many sports specialists, at present, the reserves for increasing training loads in cycling When applied to road racing, coaches therefore have to find methods that selectively target the development of those qualities of a cyclist that he needs to achieve maximum results, taking into account his individual abilities. The load, even with a homogeneous structure, can cause various internal changes in the body. It depends on the individual performance at the time of training and environmental conditions: temperature and humidity, wind strength and direction, profile and surface of the route, altitude above sea level, quality of equipment, sportswear.

In cases where the modern organizational and methodological concept of training athletes high class assumes as mandatory condition the use of several training sessions during one day with different loads, it is necessary to know and take into account the patterns of fluctuations in the functional state of the body and the physiological mechanisms that cause these fluctuations.

4. Load components and their influence on the formation of adaptation reactions

Considering the features of immediate and long-term adaptation in connection with the nature of the exercises used, one should point out the unequal adaptive reactions of the body when using exercises that involve different volumes of the muscle mass. For example, when performing long-term local exercises that involve less than 1/3 of the muscles, the athlete’s performance depends little on the capabilities of the oxygen transport system, but is determined primarily by the capabilities of the oxygen utilization system. Because of this, such exercises lead to specific changes in the muscles associated with an increase in the number and density of functioning capillaries, an increase in the number and density of mitochondria, as well as their ability to use oxygen transported by the blood for the synthesis of ATP (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980). The effect of local exercises especially increases if methodological techniques or technical means are used that increase the load on workers. muscle groups(Platonov, 1984).

The use of partial exercises, involving up to 40-60% of the muscle mass, provides a broader impact on the athlete’s body, ranging from increasing the capabilities of individual systems (for example, the oxygen transport system) and ending with achieving optimal coordination of motor and autonomic functions in the context of the use of training and competitive loads.

However, the most powerful impact on the athlete’s body is exerted by exercises of a global nature, involving over 60-70% of the muscle mass. It should be taken into account that central adaptive changes, for example, endocrine or thermoregulatory functions, as well as cardiac muscles, depend only on the volume of functioning muscles and are not related to their localization.

An important point in ensuring effective adaptation is the compliance of the exercises used with the requirements of effective competitive activity of a particular sport. The discrepancy between the nature of the exercises and the given direction of adaptation of muscle tissue leads to changes in their metabolism that are inadequate to specialization, which is confirmed by data from electron microscopic and histochemical studies. In particular, in individuals who have a muscle tissue structure characteristic of sprinters, but train and perform as stayers, an expansion of interfibrillar spaces is noted in the muscle fibers, due to swelling and destruction of individual myofibrils, their longitudinal splitting, depletion of glycogen reserves, and destruction of mitochondria. The result of such training is often necrosis of muscle fibers. This fully applies to the disciplines of cycling - BMX and track, where the use of a large volume of aerobic training is unacceptable.

In individuals with a stayer's structure of muscle tissue, but who train and perform as sprinters, excessive hypertrophy of a number of myofibrils is observed in the muscle fibers, zones of destruction are noted, covering

1-3 sarcomeres of muscle fibers, individual fibers are in a state of pronounced contracture, etc. (Sergeev, Yazvikov, 1984).

The characteristics of urgent adaptation reactions also depend on the degree of mastery of the exercises used. Adaptation of the athlete's body to standard loads associated with solving known motor tasks is accompanied by smaller shifts in the activity of the supporting system compared to those where the motor task is probabilistic in nature. A more pronounced reaction to such loads is associated with increased emotional arousal, less effective intra- and intermuscular coordination, as well as coordination of motor and autonomic functions (Berger, 1994, Platonov, 1997).

Considering the intensity of work as the degree of intensity of the activity of the functional system of the body, providing effective implementation specific exercise, it should be noted that it has an exceptionally great influence on the nature of energy supply, the involvement of various motor units in the work, and the formation of a coordination structure of movements that meets the requirements of effective competitive activity.

Rice. 1 Relationship between cycling speed and 0 2 consumption among skilled road cyclists (Rugh, 1974)

From the results of studies (Rugh, 1974) conducted with the participation of qualified road cyclists (Fig. 1.), we see that if an increase in speed from 10 to 20 km/h leads to an increase in V0 2 by 8 ml-kg-min ., then with an increase in speed from 30 to 40 km/h, i.e. also by 10 km, VO 2 increases by 17 ml/kg/min. This is valid not only for work of a dynamic, but also of a static nature. It has been established (Ahiborg et al., 1972) that static power work to a certain degree of tension is provided by aerobic energy sources. The maximum content of lactate and pyruvate is found when working to the point of exhaustion if the voltage value fluctuates between 30-60% of the maximum static force. When using stresses of less than 15% of the maximum static force, there was no increase in the amount of lactate and pyruvate, i.e., the work was performed entirely from aerobic energy sources.

Thus, the selection of work intensity predetermines the nature of urgent and long-term adaptive reactions of the energy supply system. For example, with different intensity of local exercises involving small volumes of muscle mass, a fundamentally different increase in peripheral (local) endurance is noted. The smallest training effect is observed when working with high intensity, which is due to the activation of large volumes of BS fibers and a short duration of work. Reducing the intensity of work and at the same time sharply increasing its duration help to increase the effectiveness of training. This is of fundamental importance for choosing optimal training means aimed at increasing peripheral endurance.

Loads within 90% of V0 2 max and above are largely associated with the inclusion of anaerobic energy sources in the work and involve the BS fibers of the muscles, which is confirmed by the elimination of glycogen from them. If the intensity of the load does not exceed PANO, then the work uses mainly MS muscle fibers, which is decisive for the development of endurance for long-term work (Henriksson, 1992; Mohan et al., 2001), as shown in Fig. 2. This is exactly what the authors of the works (Reindell, Roskamm, Gerschler, 1962) did not take into account, where the interval method with “impact” pauses was recommended as the most effective for increasing aerobic performance. Such training primarily affects the BS fibers and is significantly less effective for the MS muscle fibers compared to continuous training. At the same time, the higher the intensity of work during interval training, the more anaerobic (alactate and lactate) abilities are improved and the less aerobic ones are improved. The interval method, equally increasing the aerobic capabilities of all types of fibers and at the same time helping to increase the anaerobic capabilities of BS fibers, is inferior to the continuous method in terms of the effectiveness of improving aerobic performance. Reducing the volume of work along with increasing the amount of lactate during interval training negatively affects its effectiveness, since it is known that high intracellular concentrations of lactate can impair the structure and function of mitochondria.

When determining the optimal level of work intensity aimed at increasing aerobic capacity, it is necessary to ensure that high values ​​of cardiac output and systolic volume are ensured as the most important factors for optimizing adaptive reactions in all parts of the oxygen transport system (see Fig. 3.)

Rice. 2. Regional distribution of blood flow at rest and during exercise of varying intensity (Mohan et al., 2001)

To a large extent, the features of adaptation depend on the duration of the exercises, their total number in the programs of individual classes or a series of classes, and rest intervals between exercises. The need for strict planning and control of these load components to achieve the desired adaptation effect is evidenced by the following. To increase alactic anaerobic capabilities associated with an increase in reserves of high-energy phosphorus compounds, the most acceptable are short-term loads (5 - 10 s) of maximum intensity.

Rice. 3. Volume of the left ventricle of the heart at rest and during physical exercise of varying intensity (Poliner et al., 1980)

Significant pauses (up to 2-3 minutes) allow you to restore high-energy phosphates and avoid significant activation of glycolysis when performing subsequent portions of work. However, it should be taken into account that such loads, while ensuring maximum activation of alactic energy sources, are not capable of leading to more than 50% depletion of alactic energy depots in muscles. Work of maximum intensity for 60-90 s leads to the almost complete depletion of alactic anaerobic sources during exercise, and, consequently, to an increase in the reserves of high-energy phosphates, i.e., work that is highly effective for improving the process of glycolysis (Di Prampero, DiLimas, Sassi, 1980).

Considering that the maximum formation of lactate is usually observed after 40-45 s, and work mainly due to glycolysis usually lasts for 60-90 s, it is work of this duration that is used to increase glycolytic capabilities.

Rice. 4. Maximum blood lactate concentration in the same test athlete after 13 various options maximum load on a treadmill (Hermansen, 1972)

Rest pauses should not be long so that the lactate level does not decrease significantly. This will help both increase the power of the glycolytic process and increase its capacity.

The amount of lactate in muscles during maximum intensity work depends significantly on its duration. Maximum lactate values ​​are observed with work durations ranging from 1.5 to 5.0 minutes; a further increase in work duration is associated with a significant decrease in lactate concentration. Fig 4

This should be taken into account when choosing the duration of work aimed at increasing lactate anaerobic productivity.

However, it should be taken into account that the lactate concentration during interval exercise is much higher than during continuous exercise (Figure 5), and the constant increase in lactate from repetition to repetition when performing short-term exercise indicates the increasing role of glycolysis with increasing number of repetitions. Short-term loads performed with maximum intensity and leading to a decrease in performance due to progressive fatigue are associated with the mobilization of glycogen reserves in muscle BS fibers, and the decrease in glycogen concentration in MS fibers is insignificant. When performing prolonged work, the situation is reversed: the depletion of glycogen stores primarily occurs in the MS fibers. (Figure 6.) Relatively short-term intense loads are characterized by rapid consumption of muscle glycogen and insignificant use of liver glycogen, therefore, with such systematic loads, the glycogen content in the muscles increases, while in the liver, like the total glycogen reserve, remains almost unchanged. An increase in glycogen stores in the liver is associated with the use of prolonged moderate-intensity exercise or the performance of a large number of high-speed exercises in individual exercise programs.

Prolonged aerobic exercise leads to intensive involvement of fats in metabolic processes, which become the main source of energy. For example, during a 100 km run, total energy expenditure averages 29,300 kJ (7,000 kcal). Half of this energy is provided by the oxidation of carbohydrates and fatty acids, 24% of total energy consumption is due to intracellular reserves of carbohydrates and fats, the rest of the substrates are obtained by muscle cells in the blood from the subcutaneous fat depot, liver and other organs (Oberholer et alt., 1976 ).

Rice. 6. Glycogen concentration in muscle fibers during short-term intense (a) and long-term moderate (b) exercise (Volkov et al., 2000)

Various components of aerobic performance can be improved only with prolonged single loads or with a large number of short-term exercises. In particular, local aerobic endurance can be fully increased when performing long-term loads exceeding 60% of the maximum available duration. As a result of such training, a complex of hemodynamic and metabolic changes occurs in the muscles. Hemodynamic changes are mainly expressed in improved capillarization and intramuscular redistribution of blood; metabolic - in an increase in intramuscular glycogen, hemoglobin, an increase in the number and volume of mitochondria, an increase in the activity of oxidative enzymes and the specific gravity of fat oxidation compared to carbohydrates (De Vries, Housh, 1994).

Long-term work of a certain direction in individual training programs leads to a decrease in its training effect or a significant change in the direction of the predominant impact. Thus, prolonged aerobic work is associated with a gradual decrease in the maximum possible oxygen consumption. Aerobic exercise (bicycle ergometer) for 70-80 minutes at a work intensity of 70-80% of V0 2 max leads to a decrease in oxygen consumption by an average of 8%, a load for 100 minutes - by 14% (Hollmann , Hettinger, 1980). A decrease in oxygen consumption is accompanied by a decrease in systolic blood volume by 10-15%, an increase in heart rate by 15-20%, a decrease in mean arterial pressure by 5-10%, and an increase in minute respiratory volume by 10-15% (Hoffman, 2002; Wilmore, Costill, 2004).

However, it should be taken into account that as long-term work of varying intensity is performed, not so much quantitative as qualitative changes occur in the activity of the organs and systems of the body. For example, when performing long-term continuous or interval aerobic work, the glycogen reserves in the MS fibers are first depleted, and only at the end, with the development of fatigue, in the SB fibers (Shephard, 1992; Platonov, Bulatoba 2003). In qualified athletes, aerobic work for two hours leads to the depletion of glycogen in MS fibers. With increasing duration of work performed, glycogen reserves in BS fibers are gradually depleted. A sharp increase in the intensity of training effects (for example, repeated repetitions of 15-30 second exercises with high intensity and short pauses) is associated with the primary depletion of glycogen stores in BS fibers, and only after a large number of repetitions are glycogen stores in MS fibers depleted (Henriksoon, 1992). To achieve the required training effect, it is also important to choose optimal duration training loads and frequency of their use. Studies have shown that for the formation of peripheral adaptation, which ensures an increase in the level of aerobic endurance in trained individuals, the most effective are loads of maximum duration six times a week (Figure 7) (Figure 8).

Rice. 7. The influence of the frequency of training sessions (6 times a week - /, 3 times a week - 2) on the development of aerobic local dynamic muscular endurance (Ikai, Taguchi, 1969)

Rice. 8. The influence of the duration of work in individual training sessions (1 - maximum; 2 - 2/3 of maximum; 3 - 1/2 of maximum) on the development of aerobic peripheral dynamic muscular endurance (Ikai, Taguchi, 1969)

Three-time loads, as well as loads whose duration is 1/2 or 2/3 of the maximum available, lead to a smaller training effect.

It is quite clear that differences in the training effect of loads of different durations and applied with different frequencies largely depend on the training and qualifications of the athletes. Poorly trained or unskilled athletes adapt effectively even when planning two or three loads a week for a relatively short duration. Thus, comprehensive planning of load components, based on objective knowledge, is an effective tool for the formation of a given urgent and long-term adaptation.

5. Specificity of reactions of adaptation of the athlete’s body to loads

In relation to various types of physical activity used in modern training, specific adaptive reactions arise, due to the characteristics of neurohumoral regulation, the degree of activity of various organs and functional mechanisms.

With effective adaptation to given loads that have specific characteristics, nerve centers, individual organs and functional mechanisms related to various anatomical structures of the body are combined into a single complex, which is the basis on which immediate and long-term adaptive reactions are formed.

The specificity of immediate and long-term adaptation is clearly manifested even under loads characterized by the same primary focus, duration, intensity, and differing only in the nature of the exercises. With a specific load, athletes are able to demonstrate higher functional capabilities compared to a non-specific load. As an example confirming this position, in Fig. 9. Presents the individual values ​​of V0 2 max for highly qualified road cyclists when testing on a bicycle ergometer and treadmill. The increased capabilities of the autonomic nervous system when performing specific loads are largely stimulated by the formation of appropriate mental states in response to specific means of training.

Rice. 9. Values ​​of maximum oxygen absorption in highly skilled road cyclists under load on a bicycle ergometer and treadmill (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980)

It is known that mental states, as the dynamic impact of mental processes, represent a mobile system formed in accordance with the requirements dictated by specific activities. In conditions of intense physical activity, extreme demands are often placed on mental processes. In response to certain, frequently occurring intense stimuli, mental resistance to stress is formed, which manifests itself in the redistribution of functional capabilities - an increase in the mental abilities that are most significant for achieving the goal while a pronounced decrease in other, less significant ones. In this case, a syndrome of “over-manifestations” of the psyche arises in the direction of information retrieval processes, motivation, and voluntary control of behavior (Rodionov, 1973; Kellman, Callus, 2001).

Along with the higher maximum values ​​of shifts in the activity of functional systems that bear the main load under specific loads compared to non-specific loads, they note the rapid development of the required level of functional activity, i.e. intensive work-in when using habitual loads (for example, the rapid adaptability of the heart of a high-class athlete , specializing in alpine skiing, to the competitive load) and exceptionally high activity of the heart both before the start and during the course. Noteworthy are the heart rate values ​​before the start, the rapid achievement of maximum values ​​and their higher level compared to work of maximum intensity on a bicycle ergometer.

The selectivity of the effects of loads can be convincingly demonstrated by the results of an experiment in which subjects performed long-term aerobic work on a bicycle ergometer, working with one leg, for 6 weeks (Neppkson, 1992). After the end of the training, energy metabolism was studied using arterial and venous catheterization and muscle biopsy when performing a bicycle ergometric load with an intensity of 70% V0 2 max. In the trained leg, compared to the untrained leg, there was significantly less lactate secretion, as well as a significantly higher percentage of energy production due to fat combustion. These data should be taken into account when attempting to use the cross-adaptation effect in the training of qualified athletes.

The practical aspect of the phenomenon of cross-adaptation, associated with the transfer of adaptive reactions acquired as a result of the action of some stimuli to the action of others, is widely covered in the specialized literature. Adaptation to muscle activity may be accompanied by the development of adaptation to other stimuli, for example, hypoxia, cooling, overheating, etc. (Rusin, 1984).

Cross adaptation is based on the commonality of demands placed on the body by various stimuli. In particular, adaptation to hypoxia is, first of all, a “struggle for oxygen” and its more efficient use, and adaptation to increased muscle activity also leads to an increase in the possibilities of oxygen transport and oxidative mechanisms. This applies not only to respiratory, but also to anaerobic resynthesis of ATP. Adaptation to cold during muscle activity increases the potential for aerobic and glycolytic oxidation of carbohydrates, as well as lipid metabolization and fatty acid oxidation. When adapting to overheating, the most important thing is the increase in the ability of mitochondria, achieved through systematic muscle activity, both to greater degrees of separation of respiration and phosphorylation, and to greater degrees of their coupling (Yakovlev, 1974).

The phenomena of cross-adaptation, which play a certain role for individuals training to improve health and improve physical fitness, cannot be considered as a serious factor ensuring the growth of training in qualified athletes. Even in untrained individuals, the increase in physical qualities, such as strength, as a result of cross-adaptation is clearly insignificant compared to the level of adaptive changes due to direct training.

Many other experimental data also testify to the limited possibilities of the cross-adaptation phenomenon in relation to the tasks of elite sports.

Studies that trained a single leg showed that local adaptation occurs only at the level of the trained leg. Two groups of subjects trained on a bicycle ergometer for 4 weeks, 4-5 sessions each, performing work with one leg. The subjects' training was aimed at developing aerobic endurance. As a result of training, subjects in both groups increased V0 2 max, decreased heart rate and had a lower lactate level at a standard submaximal load. These changes were more pronounced in individuals who trained for endurance. At the same time, in individuals in the second group, compared with those in the first group, the activity of succinate dehydrogenase and the efficiency of glycogen consumption increased significantly. All these positive changes affected mainly the trained leg. In particular, lactate release during submaximal intensity work was observed only in the untrained leg. The authors explained the differences primarily by increased activity of aerobic enzymes and improved capillarization of training muscles.

Specificity of adaptation to specific physical activity is determined to a greater extent by the characteristics of muscle contractile activity than by external stimuli, in particular, changes in the hormonal environment. This is evident from the fact that mitochondrial adaptation is limited to the muscle fibers involved in contraction. For example, in runners and cyclists, the increase in mitochondrial content is limited to the muscles lower limbs; if one limb is trained, adaptation is limited only to its limits (Wilmore and Costill, 2004). It has also been shown that adaptive changes in mitochondrial content can be induced by exercise despite the absence of thyroid or pituitary hormones (Holloszy and Cole, 1984).

The specificity of adaptation manifests itself in relation to various physical qualities. This is evidenced by the data according to which dexterity mainly increases in relation to the indicators of the hand that was subjected to special training (Figure 10). It is interesting that the maximum effect is observed only with a certain amount of work, exceeding which has a negative effect on the course of adaptive reactions. V.I. made similar conclusions. Lyakh (1989), who studied the structure and relationship various types human coordination abilities and showing their relative independence from each other.

Rice. 10. Increase in dexterity of trained (7) and untrained (2) hands as a result of six-week training, depending on the amount of work performed (Hettinger, Hollmann, 1964)

Rice. 11.. Volumetric content of mitochondria in three types of muscle fibers in a non-athlete (I), a sports university student (II) and an endurance-trained athlete (III) (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980)

The specificity of the effect of training on endurance due to the involvement of fibers of different types and their adaptive reserves in terms of increasing the volumetric content of mitochondria is manifested in the following: in FSB fibers, the volumetric content of mitochondria is almost the same in untrained and endurance-trained individuals. In BCa fibers, especially in MS fibers, of trained individuals, the volumetric content of mitochondria significantly exceeds that of individuals not trained for endurance (Fig. 11).

Thus, when preparing high-class athletes, one should focus on means and methods that ensure the adequacy of training influences on shifts in the activity of functional systems,

dynamic and kinematic structure of movements, features of mental processes during effective competitive activity.

6. Impact of loads on the body of athletes of various qualifications and preparedness

Urgent and long-term adaptation of athletes changes significantly under the influence of their level of qualification, preparedness and functional state. At the same time, work that is the same in volume and intensity causes different reactions. If the reaction to standard work among masters of sports is expressed insignificantly - fatigue or shifts in the activity of the functional systems bearing the main load are small, recovery proceeds quickly, then in less qualified athletes the same work causes a much more violent reaction: the lower the qualifications of the athlete, the more fatigue and changes in the state of the functional systems most actively involved in ensuring work are expressed, the recovery period is longer (Fig. 12.). Under extreme loads, qualified athletes experience more pronounced reactions.

Under extreme loads in a trained person, oxygen consumption can exceed 6 l-min -1, cardiac output - 44-47 l-min"1, systolic blood volume - 200-220 ml, i.e. 1.5 --2 times higher than in untrained people. In trained people, compared to untrained people, a significantly more pronounced reaction of the sympathetic-adrenal system is manifested. All this provides a person adapted to physical activity with greater performance, manifested in an increase in the intensity and duration of work.

Athletes trained for strenuous aerobic work experience a significant increase in muscle vascularization due to an increase in the number of capillaries in muscle tissue and the opening of potential collateral vessels, which leads to increased blood flow during strenuous work. At the same time, under standard loads, trained individuals, compared to untrained individuals, experience a smaller decrease in blood flow to non-working muscles, liver and other internal organs. This is due to the improvement of the central mechanisms of differentiated regulation of blood flow, increased vascularization of muscle fibers, and increased ability of muscle tissue to utilize oxygen from the blood. At the same time, under standard loads, trained individuals, compared to untrained individuals, experience a smaller decrease in blood flow to non-working muscles, liver and other internal organs. This is due to the improvement of the central mechanisms of differentiated regulation of blood flow, increased vascularization of muscle fibers, and increased ability of muscle tissue to utilize oxygen from the blood.

Rice. 12. Reaction of the body of athletes of low (7), medium (2) and high qualification (3) to work of the same volume and intensity

Rice. 13. Reaction of the body of athletes of high (1) and low (2) qualification to the maximum load

In high-class athletes, with a more pronounced reaction to the maximum load, the recovery processes after it are more intense. If for athletes who are not highly qualified, the restoration of performance after training sessions with heavy loads of a mixed aerobic-anaerobic nature can take up to 3-4 days, then for masters of sports the recovery period is 2 times shorter. And this is provided that their total training volume is much greater compared to low-qualified athletes (Fig. 13.). It is also important that among highly qualified athletes, large shifts in the activity of the autonomic nervous system under maximum load are accompanied by more effective work, which is manifested in its efficiency, efficiency of intermuscular and intramuscular coordination. This effect is observed even in cases where the differences in the qualifications of athletes are not very large.

Standard and extreme loads cause reactions that are unequal in magnitude and nature at different stages of the training macrocycle, and also if they are planned when the level of functional capabilities of the body has not recovered after previous loads. Thus, at the beginning of the first stage of the preparatory period, the reaction of the athlete’s body to standard specific loads is more pronounced in comparison with the indicators recorded at the second stage of the preparatory and competitive periods. Consequently, an increase in special training leads to a significant economization of functions when performing standard work. Maximum loads, on the contrary, are associated with more pronounced reactions as the athletes’ training level increases.

Figure 14. Reaction of the functional systems of the body of cyclists at the beginning and end of the race (Mikhailov, 1971)

Performing the same work in different functional states leads to different reactions from the functional systems of the body. An example is the research results obtained when simulating the conditions of a team pursuit race on a track: performing work of the same power and duration under conditions of fatigue leads to a sharp increase in shifts in the activity of functional systems (Fig. 14). The functional state of athletes should be especially strictly monitored when planning work aimed at increasing speed and coordination abilities. Work aimed at improving these qualities should be carried out only with full recovery the functional capabilities of the body, which determine the level of manifestation of these qualities. If high-speed loads or loads aimed at increasing coordination abilities are performed with reduced functionality in relation to the maximum manifestation of these qualities, effective adaptation does not occur. Moreover, relatively rigid motor stereotypes can form, limiting the increase in speed and coordination abilities (Platonov, 1984).

The loads characteristic of modern sports lead to exceptionally high sports results, rapid long-term adaptation and reaching difficult to predict values. Unfortunately, these loads are often the reason for the suppression of adaptive capabilities, the cessation of growth in results, the reduction in the duration of an athlete’s performance at the level of the highest achievements, and the appearance of pre-pathological and pathological changes in the body (Fig. 15).

Effective adaptation of the athletes’ body to loads is noted in the second and first parts of the third zones of interaction between the stimulus and the body’s response. At the border of the third and fourth zones, the growth of functions slows down with the inclusion of compensatory protective mechanisms. The transition to the fourth zone leads to a natural decrease in the functional capabilities of athletes and the emergence of overtraining syndrome (Shirkovets, Shustin, 1999).

Rice. 15. Scheme of the dynamics of the interaction of training loads and the functional potential of the athletes’ body in various zones (Shirkovets, Shustin, 1999)

At the beginning of targeted training, the adaptation process is intense. In the future, as the level of development increases motor qualities and the capabilities of various organs and systems, the rate of formation of long-term adaptive reactions slows down significantly. This pattern manifests itself at individual stages of training within the training macrocycle and over many years of training.

The expansion of the zone of functional reserve of organs and body systems in qualified and trained athletes is associated with a narrowing of the zone that stimulates further adaptation: the higher the qualification of the athlete, the narrower the range of functional activity that can stimulate the further course of adaptive processes (Figure 16). In the early stages of many years of training - initial training, preliminary basic training-- you should use as widely as possible the means located in the lower half of the zone that stimulates long-term adaptation. This is the key to expanding this zone in subsequent stages. The widespread use of means in the upper half of the zone in the early stages of long-term training can sharply reduce it at subsequent stages and thus minimize the arsenal of methods and means that can stimulate long-term adaptation at the final, most critical stages of long-term training.

Rice. 16. The relationship between the zone of functional reserve (1) and the zone that stimulates further adaptation (2): a - in persons who do not go in for sports; b - for athletes of average qualification; s -- among international class athletes (Platonov, 1997)

7. Reactions of the athlete’s body to competitive loads

Modern competitive activity of high-class athletes is extremely intense; track cyclists - 160 times or more, road cyclists plan up to 100-150 or more competitive days during the year, etc. Such a high volume of competitive activity is due not only to the need for successful performance in various competitions, but also to the use them as the most powerful means of stimulating adaptive reactions and integral training, which allows us to combine the entire complex of technical-tactical, functional, physical and mental prerequisites, qualities and abilities into a single system aimed at achieving the planned result. Even with optimal planning of training loads simulating competitive ones, and with appropriate motivation of the athlete for their effective implementation, the level of functional activity of regulatory and executive bodies turns out to be significantly lower than in competitions. Only during competitions can an athlete reach the level of extreme functional manifestations and perform such work that turns out to be unbearable during training sessions. As an example, we present data obtained from highly qualified athletes when performing a single load (Fig. 17).

Rice. 17. Reaction of the body of a highly qualified cyclist (individual pursuit race of 4 km on the track) to the load: 1 - step bicycle ergometer; 2 -- control competitions; 3 -- the main competitions of the season; a - heart rate, beat-min" 1; b - lactate, mmol-l"

Creating a competition microclimate when performing complexes training exercises and training programs contribute to an increase in the performance of athletes and a deeper mobilization of the functional reserves of their body.

Many studies indicate that competition conditions contribute to a more complete use of the body’s functional reserves compared to training conditions. During control training, the accumulation of lactate in the muscles occurs much less than when covering the same distances under competition conditions.

Competitive loads in cycling (long road races) can lead to significant pathological disorders in the muscles that bear the main load, which is usually not observed in the training process.

In the muscles bearing the main load, damage to the contractile apparatus was detected (damage to 2-discs, lysismofibrils, the occurrence of contractures), mitochondria (swelling, crystalline inclusions), ruptures of the sarcolemma, cell necrosis and inflammation, etc. were noted. These traumatic signs disappear no earlier than after 10 days after the competition. Research has shown that when repeated testing under normal conditions, force fluctuations during repeated measurements usually do not exceed 3-4%. If repeated measurements are performed under competitive conditions or with appropriate motivation, the increase in strength can be 10-15% (Hollmann, Hettinger, 1980), in some cases - 20% or more. These data require a change in the still existing ideas about competitions as a simple implementation of what is inherent in the training process. The fallacy of these ideas is obvious, since athletes show their highest achievements in the main competitions. At the same time, the higher the rank of the competitions, the competition in them, the attention to the competitions from fans and the press, the higher the sporting results are. This is despite the fact that in the conditions of control competitions it is possible to avoid many factors that would seem to create obstacles to effective competitive activity. However, in secondary competitions, one of the decisive factors that determines the level of results in elite sports is missing - the maximum mobilization of mental capabilities. It is well known that the results of any athlete’s activity, especially those associated with extreme situations, depend not only on the perfection of his skills and abilities, the level of development of physical qualities, but also on his character, strength of aspirations, determination of actions, and mobilization of will. Moreover, the higher the class of the athlete, the greater the role in achieving high sports results played by his mental capabilities, which can significantly affect the level of functional manifestations (Zeng, Pakhomov, 1985).

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Editorial: Maxim Belov

Decor: Cornu Ammonis

For sports physiology, the study of biomechanical and other aspects of human physical activity is of particular interest. Increased attention is paid to research into the operation of energy supply systems at various levels of training and competitive load.

Continuous performance of motor work is ensured by the functioning and interaction of various energy systems. The main source of energy for the functioning of muscle tissue (as well as other tissues, organs and systems of the human body) is ATP. To carry out normal activity, the muscle needs to maintain an ATP concentration in the range from 0.4‒0.5 to 0.25% of the muscle mass.

Figure 1 | ATP structure

ATP reserves in muscle fiber when working with maximum and near-maximal efficiency are enough for 1–2 seconds. To maintain the required stable level of ATP concentration, there are mechanisms (or systems) for its replenishment (or resynthesis).

A distinction is made between the aerobic mechanism, where the formation of the ATP molecule occurs in the presence of oxygen, and the anaerobic mechanism, which operates under oxygen-free conditions. Anaerobic resynthesis of ATP can be glycolytic (the main substrates are glucose or glycogen), creatine phosphate (creatine phosphate is used) and myokinase (the interaction of two ADP molecules). Each of the ways of replenishing ATP has its own principles and characteristics, which manifest themselves under different types of loads.

Figure 2 | Diagram of muscle energy metabolism

Load shows impact motor exercises on the human body and the magnitude of the reaction of its functional systems. According to the load intensity indicator, 5 zones are considered, which have clearly defined boundaries and criteria.

Training load intensity zones:

1. Aerobic recovery,
2. Aerobic developing,
3. Aerobic-anaerobic mixed,
4. Anaerobic-glycolytic,
5. Anaerobic-alactate.

When considering each of the intensity zones in more detail, comparative data on various parameters - biochemical, physiological - will be provided below, as well as general methodological recommendations will be given. It is worth noting that the quantitative values ​​of some functional indicators are averaged for trained athletes with a high degree of physical development.

Figures for similar parameters in untrained people, as well as in athletes of different ages and gender may vary. However, this article focuses on comparing variables between different zones rather than between different groups athletes.

Aerobic recovery zone (aerobic compensatory zone)

The energy supply is completely aerobic. The work is performed by slow-twitch muscle fibers (SMT). MMVs have long-term aerobic endurance and have the ability to completely oxidize lactate (lactic acid salt), so it does not accumulate in tissues and blood. Heart rate up to 145 beats per minute. The level of lactic acid salts (lactate) in the blood is at rest levels and not more than 2–2.5 mmol/liter. Oxygen consumption is 40‒70% of MIC. The main substrates are fats (more than 50%), muscle glycogen, blood glucose.

The training is restorative and preparatory (warm-up) in nature. Also in this zone, loads are given to develop coordination and flexibility. Operating time from several minutes to several hours. The intensity is moderate.

Aerobic development zone (aerobic threshold zone)

ATP resynthesis occurs primarily through aerobic oxidation. Also in a small proportion there is a component of glycolytic energy supply. Motor activity is carried out to a greater extent by MMV, however, as the intensity approaches the upper boundary of the zone, they are joined by fast muscle fibers(BMW type A). BMW type A has a lower ability to process lactate than MMV, so its level rises slowly.

Within this zone there is the so-called aerobic threshold (AT), indicating the level of load at which the processes of glycolysis begin to turn on and actively function, changing in big side content of lactic acid salts in tissues and blood.

Heart rate 160‒175 beats/min. Blood lactate increases to 4.5 mmol/liter. Oxygen consumption 60–90% MIC. The main substrates are carbohydrates - glycogen and glucose, fats are less actively involved.

Training in this zone develops special endurance, and it is also possible to work on coordination and flexibility. The training method is continuous (including cyclic). The development of the cardiorespiratory system is stimulated. The execution time also ranges from a few minutes for an interval approach to training to several hours for a continuous method. The intensity is moderate. The degree of intensity varies depending on the method.

It is used in preparation for sports games and marathon running. At long-term execution exercise in this zone, due to the release of heat during oxidative reactions, body temperature increases, which places demands on the development of thermoregulation systems.

Aerobic-anaerobic (mixed) zone

The method of providing energy is joint aerobic-anaerobic. In addition to aerobic oxidation, which supplies the main amount of ATP, glycolysis is activated. The performance of motor tasks occurs due to the joint work of the MMV and the BMW type A, and to a lesser extent, the BMW type B. The BMW type B is involved in work near the upper border of the zone where oxygen consumption approximately corresponds to the maximum permissible capacity.

Since type B BVMs are not capable of oxidizing lactate, its concentration in the muscles and, as a result, in the blood increases, which leads to intensified pulmonary ventilation and the formation of an oxygen debt. On at this stage After completing the exercise, the anaerobic metabolism threshold (TAT) is reached, indicating the transition of energy supply to predominantly anaerobic reactions.

Heart rate UP TO 180‒185 beats/min. Blood lactate is up to 10 mmol/liter, oxygen consumption is 80‒100% of MIC. The substrate is mainly glycogen and glucose. As a result of training in this zone, special and strength endurance develops in mixed modes.

This is relevant for the development of complex forms of endurance for various sports - gaming and applied. Systematic training sessions in this zone can also, according to modern ideas, change the ratio of type A and type B in the muscular system of the trainee. This occurs due to the mechanisms of biochemical (changes in the enzyme base) and neural adaptation.

Table 1 | Aerobic-anaerobic transition

Training methods are continuous cyclic (of varying intensity) and interval. Depending on the duration of one exercise, changes in this zone may occur both in the number of myofibrils (with prolonged work “to failure”) and in the mass of mitochondria (in the case of work until slight fatigue).

The time for performing exercises, depending on the direction of the training process, is determined by two subgroups of this zone: aerobic-anaerobic mixed zone subtype 1 - from 10 minutes to half an hour (on oxidative and mixed types of energy supply) and aerobic-anaerobic zone subtype 2 - from 30 minutes to two hours (mainly oxidative resynthesis).

Anaerobic-glycolytic zone (lactate zone)

ATP resynthesis occurs in combination with the help of aerobic oxidation and with the participation of glycolytic mechanisms, which increase their contribution up to 60% of the total amount of energy used. All types of muscle fibers are involved, which causes a further increase in lactate levels in tissues and blood, which worsens the oxygen debt.

Heart rate up to 180‒200 beats/min. Blood lactate up to 20 mmol/liter. Oxygen consumption decreases from 100 to 80% of MIC. Glycogen is used as a substrate. Training activity in this mode develops special endurance of anaerobic-glycolytic origin. Training methods include intense and high-intensity interval exercises.

It can activate myofibril hyperplasia in the BMW, and when performing these exercises to the point of slight fatigue, it can stimulate the growth of mitochondrial mass also in the BMW. With a long training process using exercises, processes of redistribution of BMW types also occur in this zone. The total time of work in this zone for trained athletes does not exceed 10–15 minutes. The intensity is near maximum.

Anaerobic-alactate zone (sprint zone, or alactic zone)

Energy is provided by the creatine phosphate resynthesis mechanism. Glycolytic oxidation may be activated after 10 sec, leading to lactate accumulation.

Physical activity is provided by all types of muscle fibers. The heart rate indicator, due to the short time the body works in this mode, is uninformative, as is the value of the level of lactate concentration in the blood. However, within a few minutes after stopping work, the lactate level increases and reaches a maximum of 5–8 mmol/l. Oxygen consumption drops significantly.

Training in this zone is aimed at developing speed, speed-strength qualities and developing maximum strength indicators. With systematic exercise in this zone, the growth of myofibrils in the BM is stimulated, which can lead to an increase in the number of BM type B as a percentage of other types of muscle fibers. The total time of training activity does not exceed 120–150 seconds. The power (intensity or speed) of the exercises is maximum.

In the main volume of the training process in most zones of effectiveness, different principles of energy supply work in parallel, and in order to achieve the necessary tasks for the development of specific qualities and properties of the athlete’s body, it is necessary to take into account the combined and complex nature of the functioning of the body’s systems.

Of great importance in planning the ratio of load intensity in the training process from micro to macro cycles is a competent system for selecting athletes in relation to the chosen sport and physical activity taking into account genetically determined factors.

Analyzing the factors that determine the physical training effects of exercises, we can highlight:

1) functional effects of training;

2) threshold loads for the occurrence of training effects;

3) reversibility of training effects;

4) specificity of training effects;

5) trainability.

Systematic performance of a certain type of physical exercise causes the following main positive functional effects:

1. Strengthening the maximum functionality of the entire body, is determined by the growth of maximum indicators when performing tests.

2. Increasing the efficiency and efficiency of the whole organism, manifests itself in a decrease in functional shifts in the activity of body systems when performing certain work.

At the heart of these positive effects lie:

1. Structural and functional changes in the leading organs of vital activity when performing certain work.

2. Improving cellular regulation of functions during physical exercise.

The magnitude of the loads can be characterized, on the one hand, by external, internal and combined parameters, and on the other hand, by absolute and relative values.

External load parameters characterize the amount of mechanical work performed by an athlete or its duration. And internal load indicators illustrate the magnitude of the body’s response to the mechanical work performed.

The load value is determined by the parameters:

1) volume - determined by the duration of the work, the length of the repeated segments;

2) intensity – result, amount of repetitions with maximum effort;

3) rest interval;

4) the nature of the rest;

5) number of repetitions.

In this case, the direction of the impact of training loads on the athlete’s body is determined by the ratio of the following indicators:

intensity of exercise;

volume (duration) of work;

the duration and nature of rest intervals between individual exercises;

the nature of the exercises.

Each of these parameters plays an independent role in determining training effectiveness; however, their relationship and mutual influence are no less important.

Load intensity is closely interconnected with the developed power when performing exercises, with the speed of movement in sports of a cyclic nature, the density of tactical and technical actions in sports games, duels and fights in martial arts. By changing the intensity of work, it is possible to promote the preferential mobilization of certain energy suppliers, intensify the activity of functional systems to varying degrees, and actively influence the formation of the basic parameters of sports equipment.

The following dependence appears - an increase in the volume of actions per unit of time, or speed of movement, is usually associated with a disproportionate increase in requirements for energy systems that bear the primary load when performing these actions.

There are several physiological methods for determining the intensity of the load. The direct method is to measure the rate of oxygen consumption (l/min) - absolute or relative (% of maximum oxygen consumption). All other methods are indirect, based on the existence of a connection between the intensity of the load and some physiological indicators.

One of the most convenient indicators is heart rate. The basis for determining the intensity of the training load by heart rate is the relationship between them; the greater the load, the higher the heart rate.

Relative operating heart rate (%HRmax) is the percentage ratio of the heart rate during exercise and the maximum heart rate for a given person. Approximately heart ratemax can be calculated using the formula:

Heart ratemax = 220 – person’s age (years) beats/min.

When determining the intensity of training loads based on heart rate, two indicators are used: threshold and peak heart rate. Threshold heart rate is the lowest intensity below which no training effect occurs. Peak heart rate is the highest intensity that should not be exceeded as a result of training. Approximate heart rate indicators for healthy people involved in sports can be threshold - 75% and peak - 95% of the maximum heart rate. The lower the level physical fitness person, the lower the intensity of the training load should be.

Work zones by heart rate beats/min.

1. up to 120 – preparatory, warm-up, main metabolism;

2. up to 120–140 – restorative-supportive;

3. up to 140–160 – developing endurance, aerobic;

4. up to 160–180 – developing speed endurance;

5. more than 180 – speed development.

Workload. To increase alactic anaerobic capacity, the most acceptable are short-term loads (5–10 s) with maximum intensity. Significant pauses (up to 2–5 minutes) allow for recovery. Maximum intensity work, which is highly effective for improving the process of glycolysis, leads to complete depletion and an increase in the reserve of lactate anaerobic sources during exercise. Work mainly due to glycolysis usually lasts for 60–90 s. Rest pauses during such work should not be long so that the lactate level does not decrease significantly. This will help improve the power of the glycolytic process and increase its capacity. Prolonged aerobic exercise leads to intensive involvement of fats in metabolic processes, and they become the main source of energy.

Comprehensive improvement of various components of aerobic performance can be ensured only with fairly long single loads or with a large number of short-term exercises.

As long-term work of varying intensity is performed, not so much quantitative as qualitative changes occur in the activity of various organs and systems.

The ratio of load intensity (tempo of movements, speed or power of their execution, time to overcome training segments and distances, density of exercises per unit of time, amount of weights overcome in the process of developing strength qualities, etc.) and the amount of work (expressed in hours, in kilometers, the number of training sessions, competitive starts, games, fights, combinations, elements, jumps, etc.) varies depending on the level of qualification, preparedness and functional state of the athlete, his individual characteristics, the nature of the interaction of motor and autonomic functions. For example, work of the same volume and intensity causes different reactions in athletes of different qualifications.

Moreover, the maximum (heavy) load, which naturally involves different volumes and intensity of work, but leads to a refusal to perform it, causes different internal reactions in them. This manifests itself, as a rule, in the fact that in high-class athletes, with a more pronounced reaction to the maximum load, the recovery processes proceed more intensely.

The duration and nature of rest intervals must be planned depending on the tasks and training method used. For example, in interval training aimed at primarily increasing aerobic performance, you should focus on rest intervals at which heart rate decreases to 120-130 beats/min. This makes it possible to cause changes in the activity of the circulatory and respiratory systems, which most contribute to increasing the functional capabilities of the heart muscle.

One of the main issues when engaging in physical training is the choice of optimal loads, those that result in the greatest adaptation effect after recovery. In addition, the load can be habitual, which does not cause adaptive shifts, or maximum, during which functional shifts occur to the limit of adaptation.

During the training process, an increase in the functional capabilities of individual organs and the entire organism occurs if the systematic loads are significant. In their magnitude, they reach or exceed the threshold load, which should be higher than everyday.

The basic rule in choosing threshold loads is that they must correspond to the current functional capabilities of the person. The principle of individualization is largely based on the principle of threshold loads.

Training loads are determined by the tasks facing athletes. It could be:

1. Rehabilitation after various illnesses, including chronic ones.

2. Rehabilitation and health activities to relieve psychological and physical stress after work.

3. Maintaining fitness at the existing level.

4. Promotion physical training. Development of the body's functional capabilities.

Training loads are divided:

1. by nature:

training;

competitive;

2. according to the degree of similarity with the competitive exercise:

specific;

nonspecific;

3. by load size:

near-limit;

limit;

4. by direction:

improving motor qualities;

improving components of motor qualities (alactate or lactate anaerobic capacity, aerobic capacity);

improving movement techniques;

improving components of mental preparedness

improving tactical skills;

5. by coordination complexity

not requiring significant mobilization of coordination abilities;

associated with performing movements of high coordination complexity;

6. according to mental tension

tense;

less stressful.

7. by magnitude of impact on the body:

developing;

stabilizing;

restorative.

Specific loads are loads significantly similar to competitive loads in the nature of the abilities demonstrated and the reactions of functional systems.

Developmental loads– characterized by high impacts on the main functional systems of the body and causing a significant level of fatigue. Such loads require a recovery period of 24–96 hours for the most involved functional systems.

Stabilizing loads, affect the athlete’s body at a level of 50–60% in relation to heavy loads and require restoration of the most tired systems from 12 to 24 hours

Recovery loads These are loads at the level of 25–30% in relation to large ones and require recovery of no more than 6 hours.

Signs of the effectiveness of training loads include:

1) specialization, i.e. measure of similarity to a competitive exercise;

2) tension that manifests itself when certain energy supply mechanisms are activated;

3) the magnitude of the load, as a quantitative measure of the impact of the exercise on the athlete’s body.

The classification of training loads gives an idea of ​​the operating modes in which various exercises used in training aimed at developing various motor abilities should be performed.

In the classification of training and competitive loads, there are five zones that have certain physiological boundaries.

These zones have the following characteristics.

Aerobic recovery zone. The immediate training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate to 140–145 beats/min. Blood lactate is at resting levels and does not exceed 2 mmol/l. Oxygen consumption reaches 40–70% of MIC. Energy is provided through the oxidation of fats (50% or more), muscle glycogen and blood glucose. The work is ensured by completely slow muscle fibers, which have the properties of complete utilization of lactate, and therefore it does not accumulate in the muscles and blood. The upper limit of this zone is the speed (power) of the aerobic threshold (lactate 2 mmol/l). Work in this area can take from a few minutes to several hours. It stimulates recovery processes, fat metabolism in the body improves aerobic abilities (general endurance).

Loads aimed at developing flexibility and coordination of movements are performed in this zone. The exercise methods are not regulated.

The amount of work during the macrocycle in this zone in different sports ranges from 20 to 30%.

Aerobic development zone. The short-term training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate to 160–175 beats/min. Blood lactate is up to 4 mmol/l, oxygen consumption is 60–90% of MIC. Energy is provided through the oxidation of carbohydrates (muscle glycogen and glucose) and, to a lesser extent, fats. The work is ensured by slow muscle fibers and fast muscle fibers, which are activated when performing loads at the upper limit of the zone - the speed (power) of the anaerobic threshold.

Fast muscle fibers entering into work are able to oxidize lactate to a lesser extent, and it slowly gradually increases from 2 to 4 mmol/l.

Competitive and training activities in this zone can also take place for several hours and are associated with marathon distances, sports games. It stimulates the development of special endurance, which requires high aerobic abilities, strength endurance, and also provides work to develop coordination and flexibility. Basic methods: continuous exercise and interval exercise.

The amount of work in this zone in the macrocycle in different sports ranges from 40 to 80%.

Mixed aerobic-anaerobic zone. The short-term training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in heart rate to 180-185 beats/min, blood lactate to 8-10 mmol/l, oxygen consumption 80-100% of MOC. Energy is provided primarily through the oxidation of carbohydrates (glycogen and glucose). Work is provided by slow and fast muscle units (fibers). At the upper limit of the zone - the critical speed (power) corresponding to the MOC, fast muscle fibers (units) are activated, which are not able to oxidize the lactate that accumulates as a result of work, which leads to its rapid increase in the muscles and blood (up to 8-10 mmol/l ), which also reflexively causes a significant increase in pulmonary ventilation and the formation of an oxygen debt.

Continuous competitive and training activities in this zone can last up to 1.5–2 hours. Such work stimulates the development of special endurance, provided by both aerobic and anaerobic-glycolytic abilities, and strength endurance. Basic methods: continuous and interval extensive exercise. The amount of work in the macrocycle in this zone in different sports ranges from 5 to 35%.

Anaerobic-glycolytic zone. The immediate training effect of loads in this zone is associated with an increase in blood lactate from 10 to 20 mmol/l. Heart rate becomes less informative and is at the level of 180–200 beats/min. Oxygen consumption gradually decreases from 100 to 80% of MIC. Energy is provided by carbohydrates (both with the participation of oxygen and anaerobically). Work is performed by all three types of muscle units, which leads to a significant increase in lactate concentration, pulmonary ventilation and oxygen debt. The total training activity in this zone does not exceed 10–15 minutes. It stimulates the development of special endurance and especially anaerobic glycolytic capabilities.

Competitive activity in this zone lasts from 20 s to 6–10 min. The main method is intensive interval exercise. The amount of work in this zone in the macrocycle in different sports ranges from 2 to 7%.

Anaerobic-alactate zone. The short-range training effect is not associated with heart rate and lactate indicators, since the work is short-term and does not exceed 15–20 s per repetition. Therefore, blood lactate, heart rate and pulmonary ventilation do not have time to reach high levels. Oxygen consumption drops significantly. The upper limit of the zone is maximum speed(power) exercise. Energy supply occurs anaerobically through the use of ATP and CP; after 10 s, glycolysis begins to join the energy supply and lactate accumulates in the muscles. Work is provided by all types of muscle units. The total training activity in this zone does not exceed 120–150 s per training session. It stimulates the development of speed, speed-strength, and maximum strength abilities. The amount of work in the macrocycle ranges from 1 to 5% in different sports.

In cyclic sports associated with the predominant manifestation of endurance, for more accurate dosing of loads, the mixed aerobic-anaerobic zone is in some cases divided into two subzones.

The first consists of competitive exercises lasting from 30 minutes to 2 hours

The second is exercises lasting from 10 to 30 minutes.

The anaerobic-glycolytic zone is divided into three subzones:

In the first, competitive activity lasts approximately 5 to 10 minutes; in the second – from 2 to 5 minutes; in thirds – from 0.5 to 2 minutes.

When planning the rest period between repetitions of an exercise or different exercises Within one lesson, three types of intervals should be distinguished.

1. Full (ordinary) intervals, guaranteeing by the time of the next repetition practically the same restoration of performance that was before its previous execution, which makes it possible to repeat the work without additional strain on the functions.

2. Stressful (incomplete) intervals, during which the next load falls into a state of some under-recovery of performance.

3. “Minimax” interval. This is the shortest rest interval between exercises, after which increased performance (supercompensation) is observed, which occurs under certain conditions due to the laws of the recovery process.

When developing strength, speed and agility, repeated loads are usually combined with full and “minimax” intervals. When training endurance, all types of rest intervals are used.

Depending on the nature of the athlete’s behavior, rest between individual exercises can be active or passive. During passive rest, the athlete does not perform any work; during active rest, the athlete fills the pauses with additional activities. The effect of active rest depends primarily on the nature of fatigue: it is not detected during light preceding work and gradually increases with increasing intensity. Low-intensity work in pauses has a greater positive effect, the higher the intensity of the previous exercises.

Compared to rest intervals between exercises, rest intervals between exercises have a more significant effect on the processes of recovery and long-term adaptation of the body to training loads.

The heterochronicity (non-simultaneity) of the restoration of various functional capabilities of the body after training loads and the heterochronicity of adaptation processes make it possible, in principle, to train daily and more than once a day without any phenomena of fatigue and overtraining.

The effect of these influences is not constant and depends on the duration of the load and its direction, as well as its magnitude.

In this regard, a distinction is made between short-range training effect (STE), trace training effect (TTE) and cumulative training effect (CTE).

BTE is characterized by the processes occurring in the body directly during exercise, and those changes in the functional state that occur at the end of the exercise or activity. STE is a consequence of performing the exercise, on the one hand, and the response of the body systems to this exercise or occupation - on the other.

At the end of the exercise or activity, during the subsequent rest period, the trace process begins, which is a phase of relative normalization of the functional state of the body and its performance. Depending on the beginning of the repeated load, the body may be in a state of under-recovery, a return to its original performance capacity, or in a state of supercompensation, i.e. higher performance than the original one.

With regular training, the trace effects of each training session or competition, constantly overlapping each other, are summed up, resulting in a cumulative training effect that is not reduced to the effects of individual exercises or sessions, but is a derivative of the totality of various trace effects and leads to significant adaptive (adaptive) changes in the state of the athlete’s body, increasing his functional capabilities and sports performance.

The duration and degree of change in individual load parameters in various phases of its wave-like oscillations depends on:

absolute magnitude of loads;

the level and pace of development of the athlete’s fitness;

characteristics of the sport;

stages and periods of training.

At the stages immediately preceding the main competitions, the wave-like change in loads is primarily due to the patterns of “delayed transformation” of the cumulative effect of training. Externally, the phenomenon of delayed transformation manifests itself in the fact that the peaks of sports results seem to lag in time from the peaks of the volume of training loads: the acceleration of the growth of results is observed not at the moment when the volume of loads reaches particularly significant values, but after it has stabilized or decreased. Hence, in the process of preparing for competitions, the problem of regulating the dynamics of the load comes to the fore in such a way that their overall effect is transformed into sports result on time.

From the logic of the relationship between the parameters of volume and intensity of loads, the following rules can be derived regarding their dynamics in training:

1) the lower the frequency and intensity of training sessions, the longer the phase (stage) of steady increase in loads can be, but the degree of their increase each time is insignificant;

2) the denser the regime of loads and rest in training and the higher the overall intensity of the loads, the shorter the periods of wave-like fluctuations in their dynamics, the more often “waves” appear in it;

3) at stages of a particularly significant increase in the total volume of loads (which is sometimes necessary to ensure long-term adaptation of a morphofunctional nature), the proportion of loads high intensity and the degree of its increase is limited the more, the more significantly the total volume of loads increases, and vice versa;

4) at stages of a particularly significant increase in the total intensity of loads (which is necessary to accelerate the pace of development of special training), their total volume is limited the more, the more significantly the relative and absolute intensity increases.